当前位置:考试网  > 试卷库  > 学历类  > 研究生考试  > 考研  > 历史学  >  论述 13-19 世纪奥斯曼帝国的兴衰。
试题预览

论述 13-19 世纪奥斯曼帝国的兴衰。

查看答案
收藏
纠错
正确答案:

奥斯曼帝国为土耳其人所建立的一个帝国, 创立者为奥斯曼一世。土耳其人初居中亚内陆地区, 后迁至小亚细亚的安纳托利亚半岛, 日渐兴盛。 极盛时势力达欧亚非三大洲,但奥斯曼帝国终不能抵挡近代化欧洲国家的冲击,于 19 世纪初趋于没落,并最终于第一次世界大战里败于协约国之手, 奥斯曼帝国因而分裂, 随后凯末尔领导改革, 击退欧洲列强势力,建立土耳其共和国,奥斯曼帝国至此灭亡。

1299 年,奥斯曼趁塞尔柱罗姆苏丹国分裂,正式宣布独立,称号“加齐” ,奠定了奥斯曼国家的雏形。 14 世纪奥斯曼不断向外扩张, 15 世纪初奥斯曼帝国一度衰落, 到 15 世纪中期,国力逐渐恢复。 1453 年穆罕默德攻占君士坦丁堡,拜占庭帝国灭亡,奥斯曼帝国迁都君士坦丁堡并改名为伊斯坦布尔。

16 世纪土耳其人向东扩张,掌握了东地中海、红海的重要商道和埃及的巨大财富,奥斯曼帝国的苏丹成为哈里发,加强了帝国政教合一的封建专制制度。 16 世纪中叶,苏里曼一世统治时期, 帝国处于鼎盛时期, 主张向外扩张, 使得奥斯曼土耳其帝国成为一个地跨欧亚非的大帝国。

苏里曼一世逝世后, 奥斯曼帝国的领土扩张逐渐放缓。 国内民族矛盾、 宗教矛盾和社会各种矛盾错综复杂, 西欧力量的增长、 发展由欧洲前往亚洲的新航线都破坏了奥斯曼帝国的经济发展。 以往有效的军事及官僚体制因苏丹的管治失当而变异, 危机四伏的奥斯曼帝国逐渐衰落下去, 1683 年的维也纳之战标志着奥斯曼帝国终止向欧洲继续扩张步伐。

19 世纪 30-40 年代埃及为对外扩张而与土耳其进行了两次土埃战争,自此确定土耳其和埃及的主从关系。 1853 年与俄国争夺巴尔干的控制权发起克里米亚战争,以奥斯曼土耳其的胜利结束。

1839 年至 1871 年土耳其改革派为巩固奥斯曼的统治而实行了资产阶级改良运动, 即坦志麦特, 改革产生了深远的影响, 土地私有权得到承认, 新式学校教育造就了包括凯末尔等未来的青年土耳其党人。 改革唤醒了土耳其人的民族意识、 革命意识, 有助于民族解放运动的进一步开展。

答案解析:

暂无解析

你可能感兴趣的试题

“商团叛乱”名称解释

1935年,国民政府在上海成立的控制对外贸易、经办、军队进口的机构是()

论述13-19世纪奥斯曼帝国的兴衰。

“德里苏丹国”名称解释

《国语》载,"同姓则同德,同德则同心,同心则同志","同志"的基础是()

热门试题 更多>
试题分类: 安全员
练习次数:0次
试题分类: 安全员
练习次数:0次
The majority of successful senior managers do not closely follow the classical rational model of first clarifying goals, assessing the problem, formulating options, estimating likelihoods of success, making a decision, and only then taking action to implement the decision. Rather, in their day-by-day tactical maneuvers, these senior executives rely on what is vaguely termed intuition to manage a network of interrelated problems that require them to deal with ambiguity, inconsistency, novelty, and surprise ; and to integrate action into the process of thinking. Generations of writers on management have recognized that some practicing managers rely heavily on intuition. In general, however, such writers display a poor grasp of what intuition is. Some see it as the opposite of rationality; others view it as an excuse for capriciousness. Isenberg's recent research on the cognitive processes of senior managers reveals that managers' intuition is neither of these. Rather, senior managers use intuition in at least five distinct ways. First, they intuitively sense when a problem exists. Second, managers rely on intuition to perform well-learned behavior patterns rapidly. This intuition is not arbitrary or irrational, but is based on years of painstaking practice and hands-on experience that build skills. A third function of intuition is to synthesize isolated bitsm of data and practice into an integrated picture, often in an Aha! experience. Fourth, some managers use intuition as a check on the results of more rational analysis. Most senior executives are familiar with the formal decision analysis models and tools, and those who use such systematic methods for reaching decisions are occasionally leery of solutions suggested by these methods which run counter to their sense of the correct course of action. Finally, managers can use intuition to bypass in-depth analysis and move rapidly to engender a plausible solution. Used in this way, intuition is an almost instantaneous cognitive process in which a manager recognizes familiar patterns.One of the implications of the intuitive style of executive management is that thinking is inseparable from acting. Since managers often know what is right before they can analyze and explain it, they frequently act first and explain later.Analysis is inextricably tiedto actionin thinking/actingcycles,in which managers develop thoughtsabout theircompanies and organizations not by analyzing aproblematic situation and then acting, butby acting and analyzing in close concert.Given the great uncertainty of many of the management issues that they face, seniormanagers often instigatea course of action simply to learn more about an issue. They thenuse the results of the action to develop a more complete understanding of the issue. Oneimplicationof thinking/actingcycles is that action is often part of definingthe problem,not just of implementing the solution. 1. According to the text, senior managers use intuition in all of the following ways EXCEPT to [A] Speed up of the creation of a solution to a problem. [B] Identify a problem. [C] Bring together disparate facts. [D] Stipulate clear goals. 2. The text suggests which of the following about the writers on management mentionedin line 1, paragraph 2 [A] They have criticized managers for not following the classical rational model ofdecision analysis. [B] They have not based their analyses on a sufficientlylarge sample of actual managers. [C] They have relied in drawing their conclusions on what managers say rather than onwhat managers do. [D] They have misunderstood how managers use intuition in making business decisions. 3. It can be inferred from the text that which of the following would most probablybe one major differencein behavior between Manager X, who uses intuitionto reach decisions,and Manager Y, who uses only formal decision analysis [A] Manager X analyzes first and then acts; Manager Y does not. [B] Manager X checks possiblesolutions toa problem by systematicanalysis ; ManagerY does not. [C] Manager X takes action in order to arrive at the solution to a problem; ManagerY does not. [D] Manager Y draws on years of hands-on experience in creatinga solutionto a problem ;Manager X does not. 4. The text provides support for which of the following statements [A] Managers who rely on intuition are more successful than those who rely on formaldecision analysis. [B] Managers cannot justify their intuitive decisions. [C] Managers'' intuition works contrary to their rational and analytical skills. [D] Intuitionenables managers to employ theirpracticalexperience more efficiently. 5. Which of the following best describes the organization of the first paragraph of the text [A] An assertion is made and a specific supporting example is given. [B] A conventional model is dismissed and an alternative introduced. [C] The results of recent research are introduced and summarized. [D] Two opposing points of view are presented and evaluated.
试题分类: 专业英语八级
练习次数:23次
Part II Vocabulary and Structure Directions: In this part there are forty incomplete sentences. Each sentence is followed by four choices. Choose the one that best completes the sentence and then mark your answer on the Answer Sheet. 21. A great many cancers can be cured but only if before they have begun to spread or colonize in other parts of the body. A. properly treat B. properly treating C. being properly treated D. properly treated 22. she is a likeable girl, she is very difficult to work with. A. Since B. However C. As far as D. While 23. All the tourists gave the robber their money. A. frightened B. frightening C. frighten D. frightful 24. her age, she really did a good job in such a short time. A. Giving B. Gives C. Give D. Given 25. The soldier was with neglecting his duty. A. charged B. conducted C. charged D. committed 26. The reason why the car stopped was . A. because the road was not good B. that the road was not good C. due to the bad road D. because of the bad road 27. You’d better hurry, you might be late for class. A. or B. and C. unless D. but 28. , he performed the task with success. A. It was expected B. Which was expected C. As was expected D. That was expected 29. The doctor felt John’s arm to if the bone was broken. A. work out B. find out C. look at D. see out 30. He just my suggestion at the meeting yesterday. A. put away B. shut down C. showed off D. brushed aside 31. The question at the next meeting remain a secret. A. discussed B. to discuss C. to be discussed D. being discussed 32. His laziness his failure in the final exam. A. gave up B. contributed C. resulted in D. distributed 33. The teacher’s to my statement about this poet led me to read widely about poems. A. change B. charge C. challenge D. chance 34. On most of the nights, Jane reading letters from her boyfriend. A. stayed off B. stayed on C. stayed out D. stayed up 35. The first-year students were learning form the army in Miyun, a suburb of Beijing near I lived. A. what B. where C. that D. which 36. Lynda and hundreds of young people like him the post of typist. A. approached B. applied for C. appealed to D. approved of 37. Anybody is entitled to such benefit of age or sex. A. regardless B. whether C. in spite D. in case 38. In this building each apartment could a family of six. A. house B. cover C. make D. include 39. I tried to get out of the business, I found impossible. A. who B. which C. that D. what 40. When he explained it again and again, the student’s patience . A. ran over B. ran on C. ran out D. ran off 41. When her neighbor Grandma Wang became ill, the girl often . A. fitted in B. worked out C. held back D. helped out 42. If you really want to apply for the dangerous job, I won’t , thought I think it’s a crazy idea. A. stood in your way B. stand on the way C. stand in your way D. stand by the way 43. He was trying to read; , the phone kept ringing. A. meanwhile B. then C. later D. afterwards 44. I am out of those people who like a strenuous (费力的) holiday; I believe in . A. took it easy B. taken it easy C. taking it easy D. taking it easily 45. The police matched the finger prints and found they were . A. equivalent B. identical C. similar D. equal 46. Formally, in the United States, many nurses worked as private duty nurses in hospitals. A. other than B. more than C. less than D. rather than 47. If you don’t mind. I do my homework than play cards with you. A. had better B. prefer C. would rather D. would like 48. Their idea was to get us to the strike at once. A. call at B. call off C. call in D. call for 49. My car so I had to come by bus. A. fell down B. broke down C. fell over D. turned away 50. I could tell he was surprised from the on his face. A. appearance B. sight C. expression D. explanation 51. Which is , North America or South America? A. biggest B. the biggest C. more biggest D. bigger 52. You should observe carefully how the audience his speech. A. reach to B. refer to C. react to D. relate to 53. These farmers got a good harvest last year, so they a big sum of money for new farm machines. A. set aside B. set about C. set up D. set back 54. One of my sayings is “where there is a will, there is a way.” A. likely B. favorable C. alike D. favorite 55. All is a continuous supply of fuel oil. A. what is needed B. that is needed C. the thing is needed D. for their needs 56. The high income tax is harmful it may discourage people from trying to earn more. A. in that B. that C. in which D. which 57. A new technique out, the yield increases by 20%. A. having working B. having been worked C. at a loss D. for good 58. The bird flew into the air and was soon . A. out of sight B. in a hurry C. at a loss D. for good 59. It is decided that he for a bus to meet the guests from Beijing. A. call B. calls C. arrange D. arranges 60. I know it’s not important but I can’t help about it. A. to think B. thinking C. and think D. being thought
试题分类: 大学英语六级
练习次数:1次
试题分类: 社区工作人员
练习次数:0次
The discovery of the Antarctic not only proved one of the most interesting of all geographical adventures, but created what might be called “the heroic age of Antarctic exploration”. By their tremendous heroism, men such as Shakleton, Scott, and Amundsen caused a new continent to emerge from the shadows, and yet that heroic age, little more than a century old, is already passing. Modern science and inventions are revolutionizing the endurance, future journeys into these icy wastes will probably depend on motor vehicles equipped with caterpillar traction rather than on the dogsthat earlier discoverers found so invaluable and hardly comparable. Few realize that this Antarctic continent is almost equal in size to South America, and enormous field of work awaits geographers and prospectors. The coasts of this continent remain to be accurately charted, and the maping of the whole of the interior presents a formidable task to the cartographers who undertake the work. Once their labors are completed, it will be possible to prospect the vast natural resources which scientists believe will furnish one of the largest treasure hoards of metals and minerals the world has yet known, and almost inexhaustible sources of copper,coal, uranium, and many other ores will become available to man. Such discoveries will usher in an era of practical exploitation of the Antarctic wastes. The polar darkness which hides this continent for the six winter months will be defeated by huge batteries of light, and make possible the establishing of air-fields for the future inter-continental air services by making these areas as light as day. Present flying routes will be completely changed, for the Antarctic refueling bases will make flights from Australia to South America comparatively easy over the 5,000 miles journey. The climate is not likely to offer an insuperable problem, for the explorer Admiral Byrd has shown that the climate is possible even for men completely untrained for expeditions into those frozen wastes. Some of his parties were men who had never seen snow before, and yet he records that they survived the rigors of the Antarctic climate comfortably, so that, provided that the appropriate installations are made, we may assume that human beings from all countries could live there safely. Byrd even affirms that it is probably the most healthy climate in the world, for the intense cold of thousands of years has sterilize this continent, and rendered it absolutely germfree, with the consequences that ordinary and extraordinary sickness and diseases from which man suffers in other zones with different climates are here utterly unknown. There exist no problems of conservation and preservation of food supplies, for the latter keep indefinitely without any signs of deterioration; it may even be that later generations will come to regard the Antarctic as the natural storehouse for the whole world. Plans are already on foot to set up permanent bases on the shores of this continent, and what so few years ago was regarded as a “dead continent” now promises to be a most active center of human life and endeavor. 1.When did man begin to explore the Antarctic? A.About 100years ago. B.In this century. C.At the beginning of the 19th century. D.In 1798. 2.What must the explorers be, even though they have modern equipment and techniques? A.Brave and tough B.Stubborn and arrogant. C.Well-liked and humorous. D.Stout and smart. 3.The most healthy climate in the world is___. A.in South America. B.in the Arctic Region. C.in the Antarctic Continent. D.in the Atlantic Ocean. 4.What kind of metals and minerals can we find in the Antarctic? A.Magnetite, coal and ores. B.Copper, coal and uranium. C.Silver, natural gas and uranium. D.Aluminum, copper and natural gas. 5.What is planned for the continent? A.Building dams along the coasts. B.Setting up several summer resorts along the coasts. C.Mapping the coast and whole territory. D.Setting up permanent bases on the coasts.
试题分类: 大学英语六级
练习次数:2次
扫一扫,手机做题