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In the earliest stages of man's development he had nomore need of money than animals have.He was content with very simple forms of shelter,made his own rough tools and weapons and could provide food and clothing for himself and his family from natural materials around him.As he became more civilized,however,he began to want better shelter,more efficient tools and weapons,and more comfortable and more lasting clothing than could be provided by his own neighborhood or by the work of his own unskilled hands.For these things he had to turn to the skilled people such as smiths,leather workers or carpenters.It was then that the question of payment arose.
At first he got what he wanted by a simple process ofexchange.The smith who had not the time to look after land or cattle was glad to take meat or grain from the farmer inexchange for an axe or a plough.But as more and more goods which had no fixed exchange value came on the market,exchange became too complicated to be satisfactory.Another problem arose when those who made things wanted to get stocks of wood or leather,or iron,but had nothing to offer in exchange until their finished goods were ready. Thus the difficulties of exchange led by degrees to the invention of money.In some countries easily handled things like seeds or shells were given a certain value and the farmer,instead of paying the smith for a new axe by giving him some meat or grain,gave him so many shells.If the smith had any shells left when he had bought his food,he could get stocks of the raw materials of his trade.In some countries quite large things such as cows or camels or even big flat stones were used for trade.Later,pieces of metal,bearing values according to the rarity of the metal and the size of the pieces,or coins were used.Money as we know it had arrived.
1.Exchange of goods became difficult because _________.
A man became more civilized
B smiths began to look after land or cattle in their spare time
C more and more goods which had no fixed exchange alues came to the
marker
D farmers hadn't enough grain or meat to provide for
skilled workers
2.Money was not used until _______.
A paper was invented
B people practiced a simple process of exchange
C nothing could be offered in exchangeD the exchange of one thing for another became too complicated
3.The best title for this passage is _____.
A What is money
B What are money's functions.
C The importance of money
D The beginning of money
The Importance of Good Communications
Effective communication is essential for all organizations. It links the
activities of the various parts of the organization and ensures that everyone is
working towards a common goal. It is also extremely important for motivating
employees. Staff need to know how they are getting on, what they are doing right
and in which areas they could improve. Working alone can be extremely difficult
and it is much easier if someone takes an interest and provides support.
Employees need to understand why their job is important and how it contributes
to the overall success of the firm. Personal communication should also include
target setting. People usually respond well to goals, provided these are agreed
between the manager and subordinate and not imposed.
However, firms often have communication problems that can undermine their
performance. In many cases,these problems occur because messages are passed on
in an inappropriate way. There are, of course, several ways of conveying
information to others in the organization which include speaking to them
directly, e-mailing, telephoning or sending a memo. The most appropriate method
depends on what exactly it is you are communicating. For example, anything that
is particularly sensitive or confidential, such as an employee's appraisal,
should be done face-to-face.
One of the main problems for senior executives is that they do not have the
time or resources needed to communicate effectively. In large companies, for
example, it is impossible for senior managers to meet and discuss progress with
each employee individually. Obviously this task can be delegated but at the cost
of creating a gap between senior management and staff. As a result, managers are
often forced to use other methods of communication, like memos or notes, even if
they know these are not necessarily the most suitable means of passing on
messages.
The use of technology, such as e-mail, mobile phones and network systems, is
speeding up communication immensely. However, this does not mean that more
investment in technology automatically proves beneficial: systems can become
outdated or employees may lack appropriate training. There are many
communications tools now available but a firm cannot afford all of them. Even if
it could, it does not actually need them all.The potential gains must be weighed
up against the costs, and firms should realize that more communicationdoes not
necessarily mean better communication."
As the number of people involved in an organization increase, the use of
written communication rises even faster. Instead of a quick conversation to sort
something out numerous messages can be passed backwards and forwards. This can
lead to a tremendous amount of paperwork and is often less effective than
face-to-face communication. When you are actually talking to someone you can
discuss things until you are happy that they have understood and feedback is
immediate. With written messages, however, you are never quite sure how it will
be received what you think you have said and what the other person thinks you
have said can be very different.
The amount of written information generated in large organizations today can
lead to communication overload. So much information is gathered that it gets in
the way of making decisions. Take a look at the average manager's desk and you
will see the problem -- it is often covered with letters, reports and memos.
This overload can lead to inefficiencies. For example, managers may not be able
to find the information they want when they need it. Communication is also
becoming more difficult with the changes occurring in employment patterns. With
more people working part-time and working at home, managing communication is
becoming increasingly complex.
1.In the first paragraph the writer recommends that communication with staff
should includeA. some feedback on their job performance.
B. an explanation of how company targets have been set.
C. information on promotion prospects within the company.
D. an indication of which duties they can expect assistance with.areas they
could improve
2.According to the writer, the best way of achieving effective communication
is toA. adapt the message to suit a particular audience.
B. make the content of messages brief and direct.
C. select the most suitable means of conveying a particular message.
D. ensure that information is targeted at the appropriate group of
people.
3.What does the writer say about the communication options available to
senior managers?A. Sending memos to staff is one of the most efficient
methods.
B. It is important to find the time to discuss certain matters with
staff.
C. They should increase the range of options that they use.
D. Getting junior managers to talk to staff can create different
problems.
4.What advice is given about the communication tools made available by
technology?A. Aim to limit staff use of certain communication tools.
B. Evaluate them in terms of the expenditure involved.
C. Select them on the basis of the facilities they offer.
D. Encourage more staff to attend training courses in their use.
5.According to the writer, a problem with written communication is thatA. the
message can be interpreted differently to what was intended.
B. it can be easy for people to ignore the contents of a written message.
C. most people are more comfortable with face-to-face communication.
D. it is possible for correspondence to get lost within a large
organization.
6.According to the article, what is the effect of receiving large amounts of
written information?A. It is counter-productive. "
B. It causes conflict in a company.
C. It leads to changes in work patterns.
D. It makes the main points more difficult to identify.
